Order is the foundation of
all things, chaos its relentless enemy.
Early speculative freemasonry
The
craft of freemasonry was one of the few organisations able to resist the
suppression of free thought that prevailed throughout the Dark Ages
from the fifth to the twelfth centuries, probably because so much of the
freemason’s work was carried out for the religious hierarchy, who depended
upon them to design and construct all their magnificent ecclesiastical
buildings. Lodges of operative freemasons in England were almost defunct by the
end of the religious and political Reformation of the sixteenth century, but
they continued working in Scotland well into the eighteenth century, some even
longer. When all religious fraternities were disendowed in England by the
enforcement of HenryVIII's Act of 1547, very few of the fragmented guilds were
able to survive. Of those that did survive the London
Company,
which previously had operated under the name of the The Worshipful Company of Ffree
Masons of the City of London, probably is the only one that most would
be familiar with. The London Company managed to remain in
existence and jealously guarded its medieval craft doctrines and secrets,
especially within its inner fraternity called the Acception.
Among
the founders of modern speculative craft freemasonry, two of the most celebrated
prepared the first rituals. One was Dr James Anderson (1684-1739), a
minister of the Church of Scotland and a Doctor of Divinity of Marischal College
at Aberdeen University in 1731. The other also was a very influential
Presbyterian minister, John Desaguliers (1683-1743), who had lectured
extensively in England and Europe and had written many scientific papers and
books. He was a close friend of Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), the English
scientist and mathematician renowned for formulating an early form of
differential calculus, for establishing the laws of gravity and for his work on
light and telescopes. Newton is held in high regard as a forerunner of modern
science, at a time when his discoveries and writings would have had a
significant influence on masonic thought. Newton was a personal friend of Sir
Christopher Wren (1632-1723), the English architect chosen to design the new St
Paul's Cathedral and more than fifty other churches that were destroyed by the
Great Fire of London in 1666. Wren also distinguished himself in mathematics and
physics, helped to perfect the barometer and was professor of astronomy at the
London and Oxford Universities. Newton and Wren were both prominent early
members of the Royal Society, which is the oldest and premier scientific society
in Britain that was formed in 1645 and received a Royal Charter in 1660.
Both
Anderson and Desaguliers were members of the Royal Society and had a high regard
for the works of Newton, Wren and others, which at that time were not well known
or understood outside academic circles. There can be no doubt that when Anderson
and Desaguliers drafted the first rituals for speculative craft freemasonry,
their participation in the Royal Society must have had a considerable influence
on their thinking. Being intellectual men, they perceived great value in the
esoteric teachings included in the rituals of the operative free masons, which
they culled, collated and adapted. The ceremonials of the speculative degrees
are similar to some of the degrees in operative freemasonry. They create an
orderly basis for the conduct of meetings, provide fundamental masonic
instruction and establish modes of recognition intended ensure that only members
participate in the meetings. It is evident from our knowledge of the founders of
modern speculative freemasonry, as well as from the available records of its
early meetings, that the organisation was not meant to be a series of ordinary
clubs nor a friendly society, but a learned society with a masonic background
for scientific and social education, similar in many respects to the Royal
Society. Although the ceremonials are the foundation of speculative craft
freemasonry, it is important to realise that the work of the degrees was never
meant to be the primary function of lodges, which were intended to be forums for
philosophical discussion.
Four
old lodges of speculative craft freemasonry that were meeting in the city of
London came together on St John the Baptist's Day, 24th June 1717, when
they formed the first Grand Lodge of England, after which a period of relative
stability prevailed for several years. During this time, with the approval of
Grand Lodge, Anderson wrote his famous Constitutions,
prepared in close collaboration with Desaguliers and based on the old Gothic Constitutions. The
original edition of the Constitutions
was issued in 1723, followed by a revised edition in 1738 and several later
editions. Unfortunately, serious disagreements soon arose because many of the
older lodges disliked changes that Grand Lodge had introduced in relation to the
long established traditions, ceremonials and modes of recognition. As a
consequence, a rival Grand Lodge known as the Antients
was formed in 1751, working under the old Gothic Constitutions. Bitter dissension continued for almost
fifty years, by which time many members of both persuasions had grown tired of
the constant wrangling. In 1788 the Antients'
Grand Lodge first instigated moves to achieve reconciliation with the Moderns. It reactivated
its attempts in 1803, which culminated in an Articles of Union and the
formation of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813. For the next fifty years
the United Grand Lodge of England was occupied consolidating its position. It
established an International
Compact in 1814, which was of special relevance to its sister Grand
Lodges of Ireland and Scotland; issued a revised Book of Constitutions in 1815;
commenced a Library in 1837; founded the Benevolent Institution in 1838; and
built a new Freemasons' Hall during the period from 1864 to 1866.
The
United Grand Lodge of England was still consolidating and establishing its
administrative structures in 1859, when Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
published his book The
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. This eminent English naturalist's book
was received with great interest throughout England and Europe, where it was
vigorously attacked and defended just as energetically, but there is no record
of the United Grand Lodge of England or its lodges making nay comment. Although
Anderson and Desaguliers had regarded the liberal arts and sciences as
foundation stones of the craft, the discoveries and developments in science are
seldom the subject of philosophical discussion in lodges. As a result they
seldom contribute to the daily progress freemasons are expected to make within
the lodge and therefore have no impact on its teachings. Modern speculative
freemasonry has never regained its original outward and forward looking
approach, nor its fervour for the mental advancement of its members, but has
become engulfed in ritualistic procedures that undoubtedly must have contributed
significantly to the decline in masonic participation.
Fundamental masonic teachings
Since
emerging from the operative art, speculative freemasonry has always declared
itself to be a progressive science, dedicated to the improvement and elevation
of men. The teachings of Freemasonry are based on a belief in the existence of a
divine Creator, or Supreme Being. The ceremonials and traditional lectures
emphasise essential aspects of our existence, exhorting a diligent study and
evaluation of nature and the sciences. Freemasons are repeatedly urged to
contemplate the beautiful works of the creation and are reminded that the
universe of our earthly existence is the temple of the Almighty Creator, whose
divine wisdom and beauty shine forth in the symmetry and order that permeates
the whole of the creation. These tenets reflect the concepts of Newton, which
were a prime source of inspiration for Anderson and Desaguliers when they wrote
the rituals. Why then is modern speculative craft freemasonry so apathetic to
the advances continually being made in the broad spectrum of the liberal arts
and sciences, that they are not regularly the subjects of philosophical
discussion?
The
principles enunciated by Anderson and Desaguliers are impressed on the craftsman
when he is told that he is expected to study the liberal arts and sciences and
to extend his researches into the hidden mysteries of nature and science, to
enable him the better to comprehend and appreciate the wonderful works of the
Creator. A contemplation of those subjects highlights many important practical
aspects of the knowledge required of an operative freemason, who had to be
acutely aware of the character and peculiarities of the materials with which he
worked and ingenious in his methods of application. When the craftsman has
advanced sufficiently to become a master mason, his attention is dramatically
drawn to that mysterious veil of darkness that obscures our knowledge of the
future. He is counselled to continue heeding the voice of nature, which
constantly bears witness to the fact that a vital and immortal spirit, the soul,
exists within our perishable bodies. He is also told that the veil, which
screens the mind from the ultimate knowledge, can be penetrated only with the
help of that Divine Light from above, when the spirit shall return to its
Creator at the close of this transitory mortal existence. These teachings
reflect the practical aspects of a master mason's training, because he had to be
especially aware of the elements of nature that would affect the safety and
durability of the structure he was required to design and construct for the
client.
Aspects of modern science
It
is appropriate to ask if the remarkable discoveries in archaeology, astronomy,
cosmology, mathematics and physics have disproved any fundamental concepts of
freemasonry. They have not, but should enhance a freemason's understanding of
the omnipotence, omnipresence and omniscience of the Divine Creator. The theory
of the "big
bang" as the origin of our universe does not eliminate the need for
a Creator. Modern science has proved that our universe could not have evolved
spontaneously out of nothing. Nor is it a purely mechanical machine, which some
had proposed on the basis of Newton's gravitational theory, erroneously assuming
the clockwork precision with which the heavenly bodies move in relation to each
other could begin without any applied external force. It is vitally important
that every freemason should continually seek the truth, as did Newton. This is
aptly illustrated in the Memoirs of Newton,
which were written by Sir David Brewster (1781-1868), the Scottish physicist who
invented the kaleidoscope. He quotes Newton as saying:
"I
do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been
only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then
finding a smoother pebble or prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great
ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me."
Darwin
believed that the Creator originally breathed life into a few forms, from which
endless varieties of wonderful and beautiful forms have descended. Simple
observations of everyday life and the fossil records illustrate how life has
evolved in its many forms. The theory expounding the fixity
of the species was derived from ideas that had been implanted during the
religious suppression of the Dark Ages, which clearly cannot be sustained.
Mules, tigons and the vast array of hybridised plants alone are sufficient to
prove that fixity of the species is a
fallacy. What might be called the "either
creation or evolution" syndrome must surely be equally fallacious,
having regard to both the lack of consistency and the progressive changes that
have been observed to occur in one or another single species. Clearly it is
possible for created species to evolve. Equally as hard to understand is the closed mind approach that
some have to modern science. Some freemasons have even expressed the erroneous
view that any discussion of the precepts of freemasonry in terms of modern
science is tantamount to changing the ancient
landmarks. Such a view clearly is contrary to the principles enunciated
by Anderson and Desaguliers when drafting the rituals. Similar comments apply
concerning the discussion of religion and politics, which may and often should
be discussed on a comparative or universal basis, though neither on a sectarian
basis nor in such a manner as would promote a partisan cause. Regrettably such
philosophic discussions are rarely held in lodges.
Remarkable
discoveries and advances have been made in science since Anderson and
Desaguliers were members of the Royal Society. These include the quantum theory
of the German theoretical physicist, Max Planck (1858-1947), proposed in 1900 to
explain the emission of heat and light from a hot body. Another is the uncertainty
principle enunciated by Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976), a German quantum
physicist, which says that if the momentum of a particle is known precisely its
position is uncertain and vice versa. The theories of relativity, published in
1905 and 1916 by the German-Swiss-American mathematical physicist, Albert
Einstein (1879-1955), are very different from Newton's concept of absolute space
and time and also from Planck's quantum theory. Although the theories of
relativity contradict Newton's concept of controllable measurement, nevertheless
Newton's laws are still relevant and adequate for use in everyday life. However
it is the uncertainty
principle, or chaos, that is of immediate interest because
it applies to the everyday universe we can see and touch. Chaos must be
considered in relation to entropy, the arrow
of time that points irrevocably from order to disorder, reflecting the
fact that in nature everything moves towards a state of balance or equilibrium,
which is when entropy has reached its maximum and complete disorder prevails.
There
are at least three arrows of time, which almost certainly are interrelated and
are concerned with the thermodynamic, gravitational and cosmological effects of
nature. Superficially the universe appears orderly and controlled, reflecting
Newton's laws. However, it is anticipated that the universe will ultimately
reach a state of equilibrium, which is commonly called heat
death, because all of the stars will then have ceased to be incandescent
and the temperature of the universe will have fallen to absolute zero, or -273°C.
This paradoxically is the temperature required for a perfect crystal to be in a
state of perfect order. Chaos in relation to the gravitational arrow of time is
illustrated strikingly by black holes, where gravity is so strong that nothing
entering a black hole can ever escape. These examples may not seem relevant to
everyday life, but they certainly are real in relation to eternity, which we
believe to be our destiny.
The duality of order and chaos
Chaos
is a science of everyday things, where order and chaos coexist in much the same
way as waves and particles coexist in light. Even the simplest systems in nature
are extremely complex and quite unpredictable, to the extent that order and
chaos arise spontaneously without any obvious assignable cause. Probably the
best-known example of such apparently chaotic occurrences is the El Niño effect
in the Pacific Ocean, which has a significant influence on the weather. It is
caused by slight and as yet quite unpredictable regional variations in the
surface temperature of the ocean, which produce extended droughts or flooding
rains on the adjacent landmasses. Such relationships between cause and effect
are commonly referred to as the butterfly
effect, an expression first used in 1979 by Edward Lorenz, an American
mathematician and meteorologist in his paper entitled Predictability:
Does the Flap of a Butterfly's Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas?
Chaos
is not confined to the physical elements, but has been found to apply equally to
the humanities. The incidence of viral infection on an international scale; the
rise and fall of the Roman Empire; and the decline in modern speculative
freemasonry are examples. James Gleick gives an interesting exposition on the
phenomenon in Chaos, Making a New Science. In the era of Newton, Anderson and
Desaguliers, the wonderful symmetry of nature was acclaimed as the ultimate
expression of God's wisdom and beauty. Modern science has revealed that the
visible universe is only an external veneer that is no less beautiful than
previously regarded, but which conceals an infinite variety of more intricate
and wonderful universes in miniature. Chaos, like entropy, cannot be reversed
without some input from an external source.
Thus
the arrow
of time points unerringly to our inevitable destiny, reminding us that
only the return of our souls to the Creator and their survival in eternity can
restore order and save us from oblivion. The following quotations from Cato,
which was written by Joseph Addison (1672-1719) at about the same time as the
first speculative rituals were prepared, is worth contemplation:
"It must be so -
Plato, thou reasonest well!
Else whence this pleasing
hope, this fond desire,
This longing after
immortality?
...
'Tis heaven itself, that
points out an hereafter,
And intimates eternity to
man.
Eternity! thou pleasing,
dreadful thought!"